Wan Design

In this scenario I will be providing information associated with the creation of a WAN for ACME Manufacturing. This business has several locations spread out all over America and requires a WAN to connect their locations in America with their newly build plant in China. With the headquarters and engineering offices in Atlanta, which are right across the street from each other, the plan would make sense to connect all communication here.There are also distribution offices in New York, Chicago, and Phoenix which will have to be connected to this network to attend the weekly company meetings and have access to information stored at headquarters. For the headquarters and engineering offices in Atlanta a LAN setup with routers and Ethernet wires will be introduced. This choice is based on higher speeds for the network as well as a significant reduction in cost. For the offices in New York, Chicago, and Phoenix a Satellite link will be added to ensure communication with the network located at the headquarters in Atlanta.A satellite link will be made available to China as well to ensure that all locations have access to the main headquarters. Having all offices linked to a central location will allow interactions to be achieved for orders, manufacturing, communication, and other correspondence. This will allow the information and communication to be delivered at a higher standard than other means. Because we will be connecting all of the locations to a central location in Atlanta we will be using a Star Topology. A Star Topology will allow everyoffice a direct link to headquarters and will centralize the network management making it easier for an administrator to monitor. I have listed an example diagram of the Star Topology Below: With this Star Topology and the vast distances that would have to be reached to ensure communication with all locations ACME Manufacturing will have to lease T1 lines. This will ensure High Bandwidth speed and promote a more successful inte raction time for fulfilling orders and maintaining communication between headquarters, distribution, and the newly constructed plant.A T1 transmission can reach speeds of 1. 544Mbps and maintain up to 24 digitally transformed voice channels. (Techterms. com, 2013) In the interest of Telecommunications ACME Manufacturing would benefit the most from a VOIP. VOIP’s have become a new method for businesses of all sizes to interact and communicate with each other. With a reduced cost in cabling and hardware needed for setting up the service it brings great benefits to a business. Often the same cables utilized to make up a network can be used to create a VOIP and communicate efficiently.With this form of telecommunication ACME Manufacturing is sure to increase production, maintain a better relationship with customers, and decrease the overall expenses with a low maintenance system. Virtual meetings will be made easier as the VOIP is utilized by all locations that are connected to t he main headquarters. When addressing IP Addressing a Class C would be appropriate, supposing the network mask pertains to every subnet and using the same network IP address. (Regan, 2004) A VLAN will be advantageous to ACME Manufacturing because of the link it will provide to all six locations.Because the buildings are separated physically from each other a Virtual Network will allow the buildings to be grouped virtually which will increase the efficiency of the network. This virtual grouping will allow for better communication and increased productivity between all locations. I have assessed the hardware needs associated with this network and have come up with some suggestions which will operate the network in the most efficient way. First, A number of Mainframe Computer Systems will be installed at each location which will serve as the brain for each location.After the initial link is made with the central headquarters the Mainframe computers will be linked to routers and switche s. Routers and switches will be utilized to route network signals to all areas of this large network. Telephony systems will be introduced to serve the VOIP located at each location to assist with communication needs. Wireless technologies will also be needed to assist with mobility and other devices such as printers, laptops, fax machines, etc. Lastly, a physical firewall will be enforced at each location to protect the network from internal and external intruders.The wireless technologies for ACME Manufacturing will be specific to the needs of the company. For example the teleconferencing between the six locations may require wireless webcams and headsets which will need to be ran on a wireless signal. These technologies may also need to utilize the satellite signals to better communicate across large physical distances. Wi-Fi may also be introduced within each building to increase mobility and productivity. The Wi-Fi technologies will be worth it because the benefit will outweigh the extra cost as the technology is easy to set up and maintain.The Router protocols implemented will be a OSPF which stands for (open shortest path first). Because of the large network being introduced this protocol will be the most useful. This protocol operates on Internal Gateway Protocols by routing the most direct path and using the bandwidth most optimally. This not only reduces the use of bandwidth but also offers an ease of maintenance for administrators. (Techterms. com) The last area to be assessed will be the security of the network. This is by no means the less important as the security of this size will be difficult.Physical firewalls should be setup on each mainframe at each location to control the flow of incoming and outgoing information. Antivirus and Malware software should be implemented to help seek and destroy malicious attacks. Encryption will be used in the form of users supplying unique usernames and difficult passwords in order to gain entry into the netwo rk. Also, a physical form of protection will be introduced into vital places like server rooms and admin offices in the form of physical security cameras and in some cases guards.A team should be formed at each location to ensure the security of the network and combat any unauthorized entry. No network security system is obsolete but all bases should be covered. With these recommendations I have supplied I believe that the ACME Manufacturing company will be happy with their network. It will allow communication and distribution orders from each location and all will be connected to the main headquarters. The increase in productivity and communication will surely lead to an increase in sales and success.

Disasters

Chapter 2 – LITERATURE REVIEWIntroduction:Catastrophes are a merchandise of human and natural elements that cause utmost events to ensue in catastrophes because human existences are populating in injury ‘s manner. The magnitude of loss from a catastrophe is besides dependent on both human and natural elements ( Blaikie et al. , 1994, Wisner et al. , 2004 ) . The huge research has been carried out in attack to disaster direction. Trim, P. R. J ( 2004 ) states although it is possible to forestall and incorporate both semisynthetic and natural catastrophes, it has to be said that the addition in the universe ‘s population is likely to increase farther the frequence of a major catastrophe happening. Disaster direction and planning demands to be placed in a holistic scene, and new enterprises found in order to guarantee that a catastrophe is viewed as a shared duty. † A reappraisal of the literature provides the model for understanding the function of built environment professionals in environmental jeopardies, and illustrates how the reinforced constructions and professional attitude intensify exposure to geophysical procedures. Definition of Catastrophe: A catastrophe is defined by the Asiatic Disaster Reduction Center ( 2003 cited Shaluf, I.M. 2007 ) as: â€Å" A serious break of the operation of society, doing widespread homo, stuff or environmental losingss which exceed the ability of affected society to get by utilizing merely its ain resources. † In order to understand the construct of catastrophe and the catastrophe direction paradigm, it is important to grok what are the basic constructs of catastrophe and its direction. There are assorted definitions of catastrophes given by experts in the catastrophe direction field. Harmonizing to Hewitt ( 1983, p.4 ) , term catastrophe is â€Å" The potency for harm that exists merely in the presence of a vulnerable human community. † But, United Nations Disaster Relief Organisation ( UNDRO ) ( 1987, p.1 ) defined catastrophe as, an encroachment on society to the extent that a community undergoes terrible danger and incurs such losingss to its members and physical gears that the societal construction is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the indispensable maps of the society is prevented. The National Disaster Management Act 2005, of India defines catastrophe as â€Å" a calamity, bad luck, catastrophe or sculpt happening impacting any country, originating from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or carelessness which consequences in significant loss of life or human agony or harm to, and devastation of, belongings, or harm to, or debasement of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as beyond the get bying capacity of the community of the affected country. † ( cited Panigrahi, A.K. 2009 ) .The United Nations ( UNDRO 1987 cited Hanisch 1996, p.22 ) define catastrophes in the undermentioned manner: â€Å" A catastrophe is an event that is concentrated in infinite and clip and that subject a society to severe danger and such serious losingss of human life or such major stuff harm that the local societal construction interruptions down and the society is unable to execute any or some of its cardinal maps. † ( cited Panigrahi, A.K. 2009 ) . The CRED ( 2009 cited Panigrahi, A.K. 2009 ) in Brussels, Belgium, defines catastrophe as a state of affairs or event which overwhelms local capacity, asking a petition to a national or international degree for external aid whereas The World Health Organisation ( WHO ) explains catastrophe as ‘any happening that causes harm, economic devastation, loss of human life and impairment in wellness and wellness services on a scale sufficient to justify an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or country ‘ . Hazard and Risk: Renee Pearce ( 2000 ) states that jeopardy are the possible for a catastrophe. For case a meteor were to fall on a bare country ; even if it killed no 1 and destroyed no belongings, and left minimal harm to the environment, it would be considered a possible jeopardy. Natural jeopardies are natural events that threaten lives, belongings, and other assets. Often, natural jeopardies can be predicted. They tend to happen repeatedly in the same geographical locations because they are related to endure forms or physical features of an country. Haddow, G. D, and Bullock, J. A ( 2003 ) , pointed out that natural jeopardies are those jeopardies that exist in the natural environment and present a menace to human populations and communities. Harmonizing to Smith ( 1996, p.5 ) , Risk is sometimes taken as synonymous with jeopardy but hazard has the extra deduction of the opportunity of a peculiar jeopardy really happening. Smith farther explains that jeopardy is a of course happening procedure with the possible to make loss ; and hazard as an existent exposure of human value to guess which farther regarded as a combination of chance and loss. In short jeopardy is the possible menace to the society and the hazard is the chance of peculiar jeopardy happening. â€Å" When big Numberss of people exposed to jeopardies are killed, injured or damaged in some manner, the event is termed as a catastrophe † ( Smith, 1996 ) . Major Natural Disasters in India: India is vulnerable in changing grades to a big figure of natural every bit good as semisynthetic disasters-58.6 per cent of the land mass is prone to temblors of moderate to really high strength ; over 40 million hectares ( 12 per cent of land ) is prone to inundations and river eroding ; of the 7,516 kilometers long coastline, near to 5,700 kilometer is prone to cyclones and tsunamis ; 68 per cent of the arable country is vulnerable to drought and hilly countries are at hazard from landslides and avalanches. Further, the exposure to Nuclear, Biological and Chemical ( NBC ) catastrophes and terrorist act has besides increased manifold ( GOI-NDMA, 2007 ) . Kishore ( 2003 ) pointed out that Asia and the Pacific are among the most disaster-prone parts in the universe. Every twelvemonth catastrophes of all sorts cause immense loss of life and belongings in the Indian part, doing terrible reverses to the development procedure. The part histories for merely 30 per centum of the universe à ¢â‚¬Ëœs land mass but suffers disproportionately higher catastrophe impacts. Menon, V. C. , and Kavad, S. ( 2009 ) notes the catastrophes like drouths, inundations, temblors, and cyclones devastate the state with inexorable regularity twelvemonth after twelvemonth. They are gyrating out of control, increasing in frequence, doing more and more hurt, disablement, disease, and decease, adding to the wellness, economic and societal load of an already destitute state. The cost of natural catastrophes in India, in footings of human life, loss of belongings and assets and loss of shelter and supports, is immense.Menon, V. C. , and Kavad, S. ( 2009 ) discusses the dismaying statistics below:Of the 35 provinces and brotherhood districts, 22 are disaster-prone.Between 1988 and 1997, catastrophes claimed 5,116 lives and affected a colossal 24.79 million people every twelvemonth.In 1998, 9,846 people died and 34.11 million were affected by catastrophes.In the Orissa super cyclone of 1999, over 10,000 people were killed and 1000s left homeless.In January 2001, over 16,000 lives were lost in the temblor that struck Kutch and other countries in the province of Gujarat. Thousands are still stateless. Thousands more have lost their unstable agencies of support.In the December 2004 tsunami, about 11,000 people lost their lives, with about 650,000 displaced.The Jammu and Kashmir temblor in October 2005 claimed 1,400 lives and left 1,50,000 people homeless in India.The August 2008 Bihar inundations, the most annihilating one in the history of the province took over 2000 lives and affected over 2.3 million people in the northern portion of Bihar.Table-1.1: Statisticss of loss and harm due to past catastrophes in India. ( Beginning: Menon, V. C. , and Kavad, S. 2009 ) Kishore ( 2003 ) highlighted that the types of catastrophes to happen in Asia and the Pacific in the period 1988-1997 were:geological jeopardies such as temblors, landslides, and volcanic eruptions ;hydro-metrological jeopardies such as inundations, cyclones and drouths ; andother jeopardies such as epidemics, insect infestations, heat moving ridges and cold moving ridges, and forest fires.Catastrophe hazards in India are farther compounded by increasing exposures. These include the overgrowing population, the huge disparities in income, rapid urbanisation, increasing industrialisation, development within bad zones, environmental debasement, clime alteration, etc. Clearly, all these point to a hereafter where catastrophes earnestly threaten India ‘s population, national security, economic system and its sustainable development ( GOI-NDMA, 2007 ) . Types of Natural Disasters and its impact: Natural catastrophes have great impact on the communities and consequences in great loss of lives and immense harm to construct environment. The types of natural catastrophes which often occur in India are briefly classified as:Earthquake ;Tsunami ;Cyclones ;Floods ;Droughts ; andLandslides.Earthquake:Earthquake is caused by disconnected supplanting along a zone of pre bing failing of the Earth crust, called a mistake. Seismic moving ridges are produced due to sudden supplanting of the Earth crust which finally consequences in the motion of earth surface. Motions are preceded by the slow physique up of tectonic strain which so deforms the crustal stone formation and creates stored elastic energy. The break occurs when the imposed emphasiss exceed the strength of the mistake. This sudden failure releases the stored energy bring forthing seismal moving ridges radiating outwards in widening domains around the mistake. The supplanting of the stone may be perpendicular, horizontal or in b oth waies, which is frequently seeable in the signifier of little mistake scarps. â€Å" The point of rupture, known as the hypocentre, can happen anyplace between the Earth ‘s surface and a deepness of 700 kilometer. Shallow focal point temblors ( & lt ; 40 kilometer below the surface ) are the most detrimental events, accounting for about three- quarters of the planetary seismal energy release † ( Smith, 1996 ) . Epicenter is the beginning point for the temblor measuring, which lies on the Earth surface above the hypocentre. The Earth crust consists of seven major geological formations known as tectonic home bases. These home bases are in continued gesture, which includes grinding, skiding, clashing or stealing under each other. This gesture easy produces emphasis, which accumulates inside the Earth surface. â€Å" The chief environmental jeopardy created by seismal Earth motion is ground agitating † ( Bolt, 1988 ) . Magnitude of temblor is measured on the Richter graduated table which was invented by Charles Richter. These graduated tables analyse the entire energy of the seismal moving ridges radiating outwards from the point of temblor as recorded by the strength of the land gesture amplitude on seismographs, at a normal distance of 100 kilometer from the location of beginning. Harmonizing to Smith 1996, hazard impact can non be predicted accurately from the energy release and magnitude of temblor as the continuance of land shaking is non considered in the magnitude construct. In fact many other lending factors like dirt & A ; rock status ; distance from the epicenter to the harm country ; population denseness ; and nature of edifice building are responsible for temblor losingss. Impacts of temblors: About 50-60 per cent of entire country of the state is vulnerable to seismal activity of changing strengths. Most of the vulnerable countries are by and large located in Himalayan and sub-Himalayan parts, and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands ( Sharma, V.K, 2004 ) . Of the legion temblors, those of the Latur-Maharashtra ( 1993 ) , Chamoli-Himalaya ( 1999 ) , Bhuj- Gujrat ( 2001 ) did do extended harm to the life and belongings. The decease and devastation brought about by these temblors was huge. Earthquakes of Magnitude 6+ on the Richter graduated table have frequented India every 2 old ages. The Seismicity of the affected Area of Kutch is a known fact with a high incidence of temblors in recent times and in historical yesteryear. It falls in Seismic Zone V, the lone such zone outside the Himalayan Seismic Belt. In last 200 old ages of import damaging temblors occurred in 1819, 1844, 1845, 1856, 1869,1956 in the same locality as 2001 temblor. Earthquake can do land shaking and rupture Earth ‘s surface. Infrastructure installations like roads, edifices, dikes, houses, Bridgess are damaged due to temblor, which are more vulnerable due to their rigidity. Collapse of construction due to the motion and shaking of land may make an extra danger to the lives of people. Earthquakes are really unsafe non merely due to their badness, but they can besides trip other natural catastrophes such as tsunamis, landslides, avalanches, fires and brassy inundations, ( deluging occurs due to the failure of Dams, canals, etc. ) .Tsunami:Tsunami is a Nipponese word intending ‘The Harbor Wave ‘ . Tsunami is shallow H2O moving ridges that propagate in great velocity reassigning enormous energy from the beginning across oceans towards the land. These moving ridges have great destructive potency, as they increase in tallness while they approach land. Tsunami or seismal sea moving ridge is the most features secondary earthquake-related jeopardy. The word tsunami is a combination of two Nipponese words, â€Å" Tsu † intending Harbour and â€Å" Nami † significance moving ridge. â€Å" This derivation is really appropriate since these moving ridges can deluge low-lying coastal countries † ( Smith, 1996 ) .Main cause for tsunami coevals is earthquakes in the pelagic and coastal country. Earthquakes associated with the motion of pelagic and Continental home bases, and of magnitude normally higher than 7 on Richter graduated table can bring forth tsunami. The Fracture of these Continental Oceanic plates triggers a perpendicular motion or upheaval of sea bed that allows sudden and efficient transportation of energy from the pelagic home bases to the ocean. A rippling like gesture on the surface of the ocean is created by the home base failure ; this rippling gesture so forms the moving ridges with the tallness runin g from three meters to thirty meters. Height of the tsunami waves is really low in the ocean, and has velocity of about 800kph, but as these moving ridges travels towards the land they gain the appreciable tallness. These moving ridges gain height merely when they reach shallower Waterss. These moving ridges arrive towards the land in the series of consecutive ‘crests ‘ ( high H2O degree ) and ‘troughs ‘ ( low H2O degree ) . Impacts of Tsunami: Tsunami can do monolithic devastation in footings of human life loss and detrimental substructure. â€Å" Physical devastation from tsunamis occurs through a assortment of mechanisms. † ( Bernard and Goulet, 1981 ) . After tsunami work stoppages, the floatation and retarding force forces can destruct houses, while flood moving ridges turns out drifting dust, boats, houses, vehicles, braid which can struck with the seaport constructions and doing danger to them. Harmonizing to Asian Development Bank ( 2006 ) , the temblors set off elephantine tsunami moving ridges of 3 to 10 metres in tallness, which hit the southern and eastern coastal countries of India and penetrated inland up to 3 kilometers, doing extended harm in the Union Territory of the Andaman & A ; Nicobar Islands, and the coastal territories of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Pondicherry. About 2,260 kilometers of the coastal country besides the Andaman & A ; Nicobar Islands were aff ected. Overall harm to assets is estimated at about $ 660 million and productiveness losingss about $ 410 million.Cyclones:The word â€Å" Cyclone † is derived from the Greek, word â€Å" Cyclos † intending the spirals of a serpent. To Henri Peddington, the tropical storms in the Bay of Bengal and in the Arabian Sea appeared like the coiled snakes of the sea and he named these storms as â€Å" Cyclones † . A â€Å" Cyclonic Storm † or a â€Å" Cyclone † is an intense whirl or a commotion in the ambiance with really strong air currents go arounding around it in anti-clockwise way in the Northern Hemisphere and in clockwise way in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones are intense low-pressure countries from the Centre of which force per unit area increases outwards. The sum of the force per unit area bead in the Centre and the rate at which it increases outwards gives the strength of the cyclones and the strength of air currents ( GOI- NDMA, 2007 ) . Impact of Cyclones: India has a huge seashore line of 5,700 kilometers, which is often affected by tropical cyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea doing heavy loss of human lives and belongings. The coastal belt of peninsular India, particularly the east seashore, experiences frequent cyclones and about 80 per cent of entire cyclones generated in the part hit the seashore. Such cyclones coupled with storm rushs cause loss of lives and inflict terrible harm to a assortment of constructions, houses, commercial edifices, industrial constructions and many life-line installings. Structural Engineering Research Centre ( SERC ) , Madras, has been carry oning post-disaster harm studies on edifices and constructions ravaged by cyclones from clip to clip. The Centre has conducted a harm study of edifices and constructions due to a terrible cyclone, which hit the east seashore of India, near Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh State, South India, during November 1996. The maximal air current velocity of th e cyclone, as reported by the India Meteorological Department, was about 61m/s and it was accompanied by storm rushs of tallness up to 5m. Typical failures observed include complete prostration of roofing system in most of the homes and semi-engineered edifices with thatch, tiles and AC sheets, failure of connexions, failure of gable walls, and progressive prostration of roof steel trusses.Floods:Flood, as defined by the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, is a comparatively high flow or phase in a river, markedly higher than the usual ; it besides includes the flood of low land which may ensue therefrom. A river, inundations when it can no longer incorporate the discharge from its catchment and the bankfull phase is exceeded. The causes of inundations can be understood from two point of views, one being the natural causes of inundations and the other being the semisynthetic causes of inundations. However, it should be borne in head that irrespective of the causes o f inundation being natural or semisynthetic, they are affected badly by both natural and semisynthetic factors. Flood effects can be local, impacting a vicinity or community, or really big, impacting full river basins and multiple provinces. However, all inundations are non likewise. Some inundations develop easy, sometimes over a period of yearss. But brassy inundations can develop rapidly, sometimes in merely a few proceedingss and without any seeable marks of rain. Impact of Floods: Floods are the most frequent natural catastrophe that India has to confront about every twelvemonth in changing magnitudes in some or other parts of the state. India is extremely flood prone. Of the sum of 62 major rivers, eighteen are flood prone and run out an country of 150 Mha. Floods are chiefly due to heavy rainfall in association with tropical depressions, depressions, and cyclones. On an mean 60 % of the entire amendss due to inundations in a twelvemonth are in the States of Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Crops in the States of Assam, Bihar, and West Bengal screen about 40 % of the entire country affected. In footings of the pecuniary value of harvest loss, this is 90 % of the entire harm in these States. In Uttar Pradesh, harvest loss is about 55 % of the entire amendss incurred. The maximal harm recorded due to inundations in India was about Rs. 654 crore in 1980, while that in 1965, it was merely of Rs. 11 crore. On the positive side, the floodwaters do conve y about some positive consequence. The alluvial dirt brought by the floodwaters is a great blessing to agribusiness ( cited Panigrahi, A.K. 2009 ) .Droughts:Drought is the individual most of import weather-related natural catastrophe frequently aggravated by human action. Drought is a state of affairs which occurs due to miss of precipitation. Drought creates the lack of the H2O, which affects the people, animate beings, harvests, and flora in the environment. Drought is a slow occurring event ; in fact it gives plentifulness of clip to cut down the impact. Impact of Droughts: In India, thirty three per centum of the country receives less than 750mm rainfall and is inveterate drought-prone, and thirty five per centum of the country with 750-1125mm rainfall is besides capable to drought one time in four to five old ages. Therefore, 68 per centum of the entire seeded country covering about 142 million hectares is vulnerable to drought conditions. India has faced three major drouths in this century- 1904-1905, 1965-66 and 1986-87. The 1987 drouth had a permanent impact on tierce of the state ( cited Rao, D. P. , n.d. )LandslidesLandslide is the motion of earth mass under the action of gravitation in the downward face. It occurs usually in the mountain part and the skiding earth mass can destruct places and injured people. It can be controlled by proper incline stabilization methods. Impacts of Landslides: India provides dramatic illustrations of a bewildering assortment of landslides and other mass motions. There have been legion landslides catastrophes, alone and alone. The Darjeeling inundations of 1968 destroyed huge countries of Sikkim and West Bengal by unleashing legion landslides, killing 1000s of people. Similarly, the Malpa stone avalanche calamity hit headlines as it immediately killed 220 people and wiped out the full small town of Malpa on the right bank of river Kali in the Kumaun Himalaya. Landslides in the southern India besides revived public imaginativeness when the Amboori landslide in the State of Kerala killed 23 people ( cited Bhandari, R.K. 2006 )Catastrophe direction: Disaster direction is a well-drawn readying for defying a catastrophe, instant reaction to catastrophe and a elaborate program for conveying the state of affairs back to normality. Harmonizing to the Indian National Disaster Management Act 2005, catastrophe direction means a uninterrupted and incorporate procedure of planning, forming, organizing and implementing steps which are necessary or expedient for ( 1 ) bar of danger or menace of any catastrophe ( 2 ) extenuation or decrease of hazard of any catastrophe or its badness or effects ( 3 ) capacity edifice ( 4 ) readiness to cover with any catastrophe ( 5 ) prompt response to any baleful catastrophe state of affairs or catastrophe ( 6 ) measuring badness or magnitude of effects of any catastrophe ( 7 ) emptying deliverance and alleviation and ( 8 ) rehabilitation and Reconstruction ( cited Panigrahi, A.K. 2009 ) . The High Powered Committee ( 2007 ) defined Disaster Management as a corporate term embracing all facets of planning for and reacting to catastrophes, including both pre and station catastrophe activities. It may mention to the direction of both the hazards and effects of catastrophes † ( cited cited Panigrahi, A.K. 2009 ) . Moe, T.L. , & A ; Pathranarakul, P. ( 2006 ) place that the term Disaster direction is interchangeably used with a term exigency direction. It involves programs, constructions, and agreements established to prosecute the normal enterprises of authoritiess, voluntary and private bureaus in a comprehensive and co-ordinated manner to react to the whole spectrum of exigency demands. Such activities are carried out in an pressing mode when there is an oncoming of catastrophe happening. The latest definition of catastrophe direction defined by UNISDR ( 2009 ) is â€Å" The systematic procedure of utilizing administrative directives, organisations, and operationa l accomplishments and capacities to implement schemes, policies and improved header capacities in order to decrease the inauspicious impacts of jeopardies and the possibility of catastrophe † . Further U.N.ISDR explains the term catastrophe direction is an extension of hazard direction to cover the issue of catastrophe hazard. It is about impossible to forestall the happening of natural catastrophes and their amendss. However it is possible to cut down the impact of catastrophes by following suited catastrophe direction schemes. Disaster determination doing takes topographic point before, during, and after a catastrophe work stoppages. The stages of determination devising are normally described as extenuation, readiness, response, and recovery. Mitigation involves long-run actions to forestall or cut down a risky consequence from happening, such as edifice constructions that can defy the force of air currents or temblors. Preparedness anticipates the effects and takes appropriate countermeasures in progress, such as publishing warnings, carrying supplies, or set uping emptying paths. Response includes actions taken during an event and its immediate wake, including deliverance. And recovery brings a community back to life by reconstructing indispensable services and economic verve. Different stages of Disaster Management: Regardless of the type of catastrophe, Disaster direction procedure is divided in 6 stages, which includes the pre-disaster direction and post-disaster direction ; the stages are Response, Recovery, Mitigation, Risk decrease, Prevention and Preparedness. Whereas response and recovery comes under station catastrophe stage after the catastrophe work stoppages, and extenuation, hazard decrease, bar and readiness comes under pre catastrophe stage.ExtenuationMitigation response efforts to accept the hazard of jeopardy and so analyzing it, to cut down the impact and badness, so that when catastrophe occurs it should non make a havoc status. â€Å" The extenuation stage differs from the other stages because it focuses on long-run steps for cut downing or extinguishing hazard † ( Haddow, G. D, and Bullock, J. A. 2003 ) . Mitigate options may be structural or non structural. Structural steps implements technological solutions like, temblor immune construction, building of embankment an d inundation walls to command inundations, or building of dike to forestall drouth. Non structural steps include insurance, exigency emptying country etc. Extenuation seems to be really cost effectual stairss in catastrophe direction, as it acts like ‘Prevention is ever better than remedy ‘ .Hazard decreaseBasic construct of the hazard decrease stage is to accept the hazard of catastrophe, and fix action program to cut down or if possible to avoid the impact of catastrophe on local community and on environing. Harmonizing to UNISDR ( 2009 ) , hazard decrease is â€Å" the construct and pattern of cut downing catastrophe hazards through systematic attempts to analyze and pull off the insouciant factors of catastrophes, including through reduced exposure to jeopardies, lessened exposure of people and belongings, wise direction of land and the environment, and betterment readiness for inauspicious events † .PreventionIt is â€Å" avoiding a catastrophe even at 11th hr † ( UNDP, cited Wattegama, C. 2007 ) . ‘Prevention is better than remedy ‘ , this is a good known phrase we all listening from our childhood. To undertake with any type of catastrophe it is must to cognize the bar attempts need to be taken e.g. , building of dikes to command the inundations and to avoid the drouth ; another illustration is to plan a safe and temblor immune construction to bare a land motions.Readiness:Readiness is the measure before catastrophe work stoppages. In this stage exigency director or determination shaper develops and implements the program to confront the exigency state of affairs. Preparedness consists of activities designed to minimise loss of life and harm, form the impermanent remotion of people of people and belongings from a threatened location, and ease seasonably and effectual deliverance, alleviation and rehabilitation ( Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation Summit, 2002 ) . Preparedness for any catastrophe includes proper com municating program between every voluntary, with needed preparation. Emergency response squads from assorted organisations help to supply necessary deliverance and alleviation operation to affected people. Most of the clip local people or voluntaries are preferred in such squads as they have better cognition of the environing state of affairs. Casualty anticipation is another facet of readiness, in which a anticipation about casualties is done, so as to supply sufficient resources for a given sort of event. Planner will acquire the exact thought of what precisely need to make at the clip of catastrophe, in short contriver will acquire the thought about what right measure resources need to be utilized at right clip and at right topographic point, to beef up the society from hazard impact. This procedure should be flexible plenty to suit sufficient figure of sick persons.ResponseIt includes mobilisation of exigency services to the catastrophe country every bit early as possible, such as fire combat crew, constabulary, and ambulance etc. Quick response to any catastrophe may salvage figure of lives, from farther deceases and hurts. In response stage basic demands of do-gooder is to be taken attention of. Medicine, nutrient, drinkable H2O, and sanitation system need to be implementing in minimal continuance. As after catastrophe people are frighten and need some moral support, and if they get help at right clip, so it may make a positive consequence on those people.Recovery:Recovery is an built-in portion of the comprehensive exigency direction procedure ( Sullivan, 2003 ) . It refers to all activities that are carried out instantly after the initial response to a catastrophe state of affairs. This will normally widen until the community ‘s capacity for self-help has been restored. In other words, the end-state is when the assisted community reaches a degree of working where it is able to prolong itself in the absence of farther external intercession ( Sulli van, 2003 cited Rotimi, J. O. , 2009 ) . â€Å" The purpose of the recovery stage is to reconstruct the affected country to its old province. It differs from the response stage in its focal point ; recovery attempts are concerned with issues and determinations that must be made after immediate demands are addressed. Recovery attempts are chiefly concerned with actions that involve reconstructing destroyed belongings, re-employment, and the fix of other indispensable substructure † ( Haddow, G.D and Bullock, J A. 2004 ) . â€Å" An of import facet of effectual recovery attempts is taking advantage of a ‘window of chance ‘ for the execution of extenuation steps that might otherwise be unpopular † ( Alexander, D. 2002 ) . When a recent catastrophe is in fresh memory, citizens of the affected country are more likely to accept more extenuation steps. Pheng, L. S. et al. , ( 2006 ) clear up that the tremendous sum of attempt needed in the assorted phases of catastrophe direction ; it requires a holistic response from many different Fieldss and varied subjects. For the building industry, these include professionals, practicians, and voluntaries from international establishments, voluntary public assistance organisations ( VWOs ) or non-governmental administrations ( NGOs ) that specialise in edifice, civil technology, architecture, urban planning, and environmental surveies.Role of building sector professionals: It was realized during some past catastrophes in India, viz. Latur Maharashtra Earthquake1993, Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999, and the major temblor in Kutch Gujarat in 2001, that, much of the devastation has been due to the edifices constructed without equal safety steps as specified in Indian Standard Building Codes. National Disaster Management Authority of the Government of India ( n.d. ) is acknowledging the function of designers and applied scientists in catastrophe direction and for throwing the challenge of presenting catastrophe safe buildings with velocity and economic system and develop advanced, cost effectual and appropriate engineerings for beef uping the old and non engineered buildings to guarantee human safety against all types of natural catastrophes. Further it clarifies that â€Å" there is an dissymmetry in the influence of assorted function participants lending to catastrophes and the attempts to better human resources and quality of pattern. It recognizes that the building sector professionals like designers and applied scientists can be effectual leaders to actuate the other function participants to better the quality of design and building pattern. † It is necessary for the local building industry to appreciate the importance of the edifice bringing procedure and its life rhythm from planning, design, building to operation and care. At each phase, a deliberate, planned, strategic, and systematic procedure must be established to better the capacity and capableness of the industry to react efficaciously to catastrophes ( Ofori, 2002 ) . Through integrated attempts by the authorities, corporate and academic establishments, the local building industry can besides better its direction capacity and capableness to fix for a nd extenuate the hazards from tsunamis ( Pheng, L. S. et al. , 2006 ) . Owen, D. and Dumashie, D. , ( 2007 ) buttocks that there are many bureaus who do non cognize who to name for reinforced environment advice when they are called to a catastrophe, and monitoring and rating of Reconstruction attempts is being carried out without professional aid. Sevin and Little ( 1998 cited Haigh, R. et al. , 2006 ) suggest that computerized edifice programs, structural analysis programmes, and damage assessment theoretical accounts may all ease rapid deliverance and recovery of victims in the wake of an event, and that these all require the active engagement of the building professions. They besides suggested that the building professions are in the best place to border the treatment of the cost-benefit trade-offs that occur in the hazard direction procedure, for illustration the demand for hazard turning away against the cost of implementing safety schemes. There is grounds of the ways, Buildin g ( 2005 cited Bosher, L. et al. , 2007 ) revealed, in which building industry professionals helped constabularies and the exigency services after the terrorist onslaughts in London on 7 July 2005 by supplying equipment to help the constabulary with their hunt and deliverance activities. This illustration illustrates one function that building sector professionals can play in reacting to exigency events and high spots chances for building consultancies to specialise in post-event response and rehabilitation activities. ( Bosher, L. et al. , 2007 ) Chhibber and Parker ( 2006 cited Pheng, L. S. et al. , 2006 ) , both from the World Bank ‘s Independent Evaluation Group, noted that it really costs really small, an estimated 10 per cent addition, to do constructions safer. Preventive care of cardinal protective substructure is besides of critical importance for protection against future calamities. The couple opined that bar is more cost-efficient than response, and that hapless building quality is a major ground why so many people lost their lives when catastrophes strike in developing states. This could be caused by slack edifice codifications, weak enforcement of building criterions, and corrupt procurance patterns. Upstream in the building supply concatenation, better land usage planning is of import to guarantee that people are non housed in hazardous countries. In reasoning that edifice stuffs and design are closely related and little alterations can either salvage 1000s of lives or set many more at greater hazards. A survey found that there is a deficiency of counsel ( and a important deficiency of any complementary counsel ) on how to cover with unexpected catastrophe events and how to utilize the information to better the manner edifices and substructure are designed and built to get by with such hazards and dangers ( Bosher et al. , 2007 ) . The single and local nature of the reinforced environment, shaped by context, restricts our ability to use common extenuation and Reconstruction solutions. Catastrophes have the ability to badly interrupt economic growing and impede a individual ‘s ability to emerge from poorness. The protective features of the built environment and the part of the professionals offer an of import agencies by which building industry can cut down the hazard posed by jeopardies, thereby forestalling a catastrophe. Hence there is pressing demand to measure the challenges faced by the building sector professionals in planing catastrophe immune communities.Challenges in Execution:NIDM ( 2009 ) believes that professionals play a critical function in cut downing exposure to catastrophes and their capacity to pull off catastrophe hazards and exigencies require cognition, accomplishments, resources, motive, and attitude at different degrees. It includes preparation, instruction, guidelines and statute law, policy support for actions, and systemic answerability. Most of the critical factors in success of catastrophe hazard direction have been analyzed and evaluated based on the old survey and findings of the research workers.Knowledge and consciousness:Knowledge can be defined as a dynamic human procedure of warranting personal belief toward the â€Å" truth † ( i.e. a justified true belief ) ( Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995 cited Carrillo et al. , 2000 ) . Whereas Hicks et al. , ( 2006 ) defines â€Å" Knowledge † as the combination of information which is aggregation of informations. Harmonizing to Siemieniuch and Sinclair ( 1999 ) ( cited C arrillo et al. , 2000, assorted categorization of cognition include: formal ( expressed ) and tacit ( expertness ) cognition ; foreground and background cognition ; categorizations with regard to the function of cognition for concern relevancy ( e.g. cognition of concern environments ) , or with regard to the functional functions within an organisation ( e.g. cognition for control activities ) . As per Egbu, C. et al. , ( 2003 cited Thanurjan, R. and Seneviratne, L.P. , 2009 ) the cognition beginnings mean the â€Å" reservoirs of cognition † , which a knowledge-worker has to fall back on in carry throughing his/her duties. He classified cognition beginnings into two chief classs i.e. beginnings internal to the administration ( other persons, squad ( s ) , modus operandis, competencies, and depositories ) and beginnings external to the administration ( other persons, communities of Practice, other webs, depositories, and knowledge gate-keepers ) . King ( 2005 cited Thanurjan, R. and Seneviratne, L.D.I.P. 2009 ) defined â€Å" Knowledge Management as the systematic scheme to roll up ; shop ; and recover cognition, and so assist administer the information and cognition to those who need it in a timely mode. † Organizations who are successful in leveraging cognition, usually witness increased efficiencies in operations, higher rates of successful inventions, increased degrees of client service, and an ability to hold foresight on tendencies and forms emerging in the market place ( Desouza and Awazu, 2006 cited Thaurjan, R. and Seneviratne, L.D.I.P. 2009 ) . Thanurjan, R. and Seneviratne, L.D.I. P. , ( 2009 ) observes that since building activities are extremely knowledge-intensive, knowledge direction ( KM ) patterns will promote uninterrupted betterment, distribute best patterns, speedy response to donees, portion valuable tacit cognition, cut down rework, better fight and inventions, and cut down complexnesss in post-dis aster lodging Reconstruction. Banerjee ( 2005 cited Haigh, R. et al. , 2006 ) argues that deficiency of anterior cognition and proper point of mentions have made most of the recovery plans thinking games, finally neglecting without adding appropriate values to the recovery efforts. Further Haigh, R. et al. , ( 2006 ) identifies deficiency of effectual information and cognition airing as one of the major grounds behind the unsatisfactory public presentation degrees of current catastrophe direction patterns. Both consciousness and preventative stairss are needed to forestall immense loss of human life in the hereafter. Harmonizing to Endsley and Garland ( 2000 cited Son, J. et al. , 2007 ) the state of affairs consciousness is a cognitive concept that refers to an consciousness and apprehension of external events in our immediate and near future milieus and is defined as â€Å" perceptual experience of the elements in the environment within a volume of clip and infinite, the comprehension of their significance, and the projection of their position in the hereafter † . Son, J. et al. , ( 2007 ) examine that a cardinal challenge in an effectual catastrophe response operation is to accurately entree bing state of affairs, roll up accurate and relevant informations from catastrophe scene, and analyse it and convey it to the right forces at the right clip. Improved Situation Awareness can hold a critical impact on truth of the determination devising procedure, resource direction, and coordination and response effectivity. Respondents can get information from the environment chiefly through their senses. The degree of acquired consciousness depends on the extent of how much a respondent is able to comprehend the environing environment right ( thoroughness ) . The thoroughness is affected non merely by the respondent ‘s features such as cognition, experience, and preparation but besides by information obtained through direct observation of environment, information systems, and communicating with co-workers. Banerjee, ( 2005 cited Haigh, R. et Al. 2006 ) identifies deficiency of consciousness as a major ground behind the immense loss of life. Government of India ( 2004 ) identifies that in many instances, the Building ordinances do non integrate the BIS codifications. Even where they do, the deficiency of cognition sing seismically safe building among the designers and applied scientists every bit good as deficiency of consciousness sing their exposure among the population led to most of the building in the urban/sub-urban countries being without mention to BIS criterions. Constructing a robust and sound information database: A comprehensive database of the land usage, human ecology, substructure developed at the national, province, and local degrees along with current information on clime, conditions, and semisynthetic constructions is important in planning, warning and appraisal of catastrophes. â€Å" The 26/7 catastrophe in Mumbai has triggered the institute to look beyond the four walls and exercise steps to forestall catastrophes. The institute has realized that today the cognition base of exigency directors has be en experiential. There is a demand to develop a new coevals of exigency directors, which will hold appropriate educational inputs and professional cognition to cover with catastrophes and work towards catastrophe extenuation † ( Disaster Management Cell, 2007 ) . Further Haigh, R. et al. , ( 2006 ) suggests that future research must look to heighten cognition and raise consciousness among practicians and research workers of the linkage between good planning, design, building and operation, and catastrophe bar and resiliency.Attitude:Following the cultural model of organisations under emphasis, it can be argued that the cultural differences between exigency response organisations may forestall a ( N ) holistic attack on exigency direction. In other words, the issues of acquisition, preparation, hierarchy and authorization, communicating and decision-making, secretiveness and incrimination, linguistic communication, and resources may impact the perceptual experiences of organisa tions sing themselves and towards a coordinated catastrophe direction. Hazards and catastrophes need to be jointly managed while, at the same clip, adequate leeway has to be provided to promote single motive and enterprises. ( Pande, R. K. , 2007 ) Harmonizing to Scarman Centre ( 2001 ) the statement is that the safety civilization of an administration embraces the beliefs and mentalities of its members towards safety. The design and building of a resilient built environment demands an in-depth apprehension of the expertness and cognition on avoiding and extenuating the effects of menaces and jeopardies ( Lorch, 2005 ; Hamelin and Hauke, 2005 ; Bosher et al. , 2006, 2007 ) . Erman, E. ( 2005 ) argues that many bookmans and practising designers think that guaranting the execution of earthquake-resistant designs is chiefly the duty of the structural applied scientist, but in world it is non. In many cases, certain temblor immune design demands are neglected both in architectural instruction and in pattern with the idea that the structural applied scientist can incorporate temblor commissariats in the design subsequently, after the architectural design is completed. Bosher, et al. , ( 2007 ) observed through an exercising that arc hitects/designers were perceived to be the most of import stakeholders from the building sector who should supply a figure of indispensable inputs into catastrophe hazard direction activities. The instruction system in India has provided many chances but most pupils are non interested in prosecuting programmes in life-saving methodological analysiss. Forces involved in the catastrophe extenuation exercising have to pull upon cognition of best patterns and resources available to them. Furthermore, National Society of Professional Engineers ( 2008 ) see that an ethical applied scientist is one who avoids struggles of involvement, does non try to belie their cognition so as to accept occupations outside their country of expertness, acts in the best involvements of society and the environment, fulfills the footings of their contracts or understandings in a thorough and professional mode, and promotes the instruction of immature applied scientists within their field.Education and Training:Often, after a annihilating consequence of catastrophe, the spread between academic cognition and the right application of safer building methods in professional pattern becomes distressingly evident. These catastrophes cause heavy harm to construct environment and it could be because there is still some grade of misinformation or ignorance in the application of safety criterions and edifice codifications. It has been observed in Indian higher technology instruction that, adequate co gnition about catastrophes is non provided to pupils particularly during their undergraduate instruction. One of the most of import factors lending to the lay waste toing state of affairs is the deficiency of instruction and preparation of designers and applied scientists in temblor technology rules and designs. In most of the architectural establishments, seismal design is non taught at the undergraduate degree as a compulsory topic. Rarely a class on temblor design is taught at the undergraduate degree even as an elected ( NPCBAERM, 2007 ) . Government of India ( 2004 ) identifies that up till now, temblor technology was non a portion of the undergraduate technology course of study which was the ground for the structural applied scientists non being cognizant of the elements necessary for temblor immune building. It has been observed that even where bye-laws have been amended to integrate the BIS codifications, these are non being implemented. The ground is that the engineers/architects practising in private sector are non trained in the relevant codifications and neither are the appli ed scientists in the regulative organic structures. While these extenuation steps will take attention of the new buildings, the job of insecure bing edifices stock would still stay. Harmonizing to Government of India ( 2004 ) , † the information and preparation on ways to better respond to and extenuate catastrophes to the respondents go a long manner in constructing the capacity and resiliency of the state to cut down and forestall catastrophes. Training is an built-in portion of capacity edifice as trained forces respond much better to different catastrophes and appreciate the demand for preventative steps. The multi-sectoral and multi-hazard bar based attack to disaster direction requires specific professional inputs. Professional preparation in catastrophe direction should be built into the bing pedagogic research and instruction. † David Alexander ( 2003 ) states that the one standard by which a profession is born is the quality and cogency of developing received by its disciples, educational criterions have a critical function to play in assisting the field achieve acknowledgment. Hazard and jeopardy consciousness preparation demands to be integrated consistently into the professional preparation of designers, contrivers, applied scientists, developers, etc. ; and the building sector should encompass and pre-empt regulative alterations sing resilient building demands. Arnold, C. ( 1992 ) argues forcibly that â€Å" If we are to forestall new catastrophes, the profession shall hold to amend its patterns. From the start of professional developing a pupil must be made witting of the demand to see construction as an built-in portion of the undertaking and non as some nuisance that the structural interior decorator adds to the architectural undertaking†¦ they must non be viewed as mere additions † . Erm an, E. ( 2005 ) discovers that unluckily, practising designers are non required to be qualified in earthquake-resistant codifications which consequences in a serious lack in designers ‘ cognition about earthquake-resistant design. Seismic design instruction should non be left to be absorbed during the accretion of post-graduation experience, nor regarded strictly as the state of the technology profession ( Charleson, A. W. , 1997 ) . The research activities are being coordinated by different ministries depending on the type and degree of research. An of import function is played by the Universities excessively in this sector who, besides running programmes on catastrophe direction, besides serve as think armored combat vehicles for the authorities ( cited Sharma, V.K. , 2004 ) . India needs a strain of experts and specializers on all the diverse facets of catastrophe extenuation and direction for which adequate infinite is to be found in our universities and higher institutes of acquisition, a much broader model entirely can run into the demand for catastrophe instruction for all ( cited Bhandari, R. K. 2006 ) .Information ( resources ) :There is a demand to incorporate information across many subjects, organisations, and geographical parts. A comprehensive catastrophe direction system must let entree to many different sorts of information at multiple degrees at many points of clip. Disaster information involves more than merely informations and several interconnecting stairss are typically required to bring forth the type of action-oriented merchandises that are needed by the catastrophe direction community ( Venkatachary, K.V. , et al. , 2004 ) . More descriptive, Dengler ( 2005 ) defines the benchmarks that a coastal community should carry through to entree the resilient community position as: understand the tsunami jeopardy, possess the necessary extenuation tools, disseminate information about the tsunami jeopardy, exchange information with other at-risk countries, and commit planning for catastrophe direction. Son, J et Al. ( 2007 ) studied the critical factor in increasing coordination in catastrophe direction is non merely to supply information to first respondents but besides to place and portion the nucleus information. Access to core information could well better response effectivity. Similarly, handiness of nucleus information related to edifices and substructure systems ( such as entree to edifice drawings, handiness of risky stuffs, site taint, current and forecasted work demand, etc. ) could well better effectivity of applied scientists involved in post-disaster harm appraisal. Pena-Mora ( 2005 ) emphasizes that building applied scientists possess valuable information about their undertakings and the information that can be critical in catastrophe readiness every bit good as response and recovery. The information they posses, he argues, may be the difference between life and decease. Similarly, Lloyd Jones ( 2006 ) concluded that hired surveyors, with appropriate preparation, have cardinal functions to play during all catastrophe stages, from readiness to immediate alleviation, traditional recovery, and long-run Reconstruction. Sia, X. , Lia, J. and Wan, Z. ( 2009 ) assert that seasonably and updated information reflecting the newest catastrophe state of affairs is highly of import for effectual exigency response and efficient actions. While important research has been demonstrated on the current research of catastrophe direction, the job of how to offer seasonably, even existent clip informations and information to catastrophe directors and exigency respon dents is still far from solution. Significant information already exists that could be used to this terminal, but there are legion obstructions to accessing this information, and methods for incorporating information from a assortment of beginnings for determination devising are soon unequal. Execution of an improved national or international web for doing better information available in a timelier mode could well better the state of affairs ( National Research Council, 1999 ) .Inappropriate planning:Dennis S. Mileti ( 1999 ) found out that jeopardy losingss, and the fact that at that place seems to be an inability to cut down such losingss, are the effects of narrow and short-sighted development forms, cultural premises, and attitudes toward the natural environment, scientific discipline, and engineering. â€Å" Theoretically, the planning system attempts to apportion appropriate land for appropriate intents while taking history of menaces to that land, the usage of bordering land and the demands of the local population. Realistically, the function of the be aftering system-resolving contradictions and deep-seated struggles between viing private involvements over the usage and development of land, on the one manus, and public and community involvements over belongings rights and development precedences, on the other-is an impossible one â€Å" ( Gillingwater and Ison, 2003, p. 561 ) . One manner in which exigency directors can go more proactive is by following an docket that encourages the integrating of professions from the building industry. There is presently small commentary from exigency direction, building, or civil defense-related literature on the part of the building industry to the extenuation of natural and human-induced jeopardies ( Bosher, L. et al. , 2007 ) . Measures such as the acceptance and enforcement of land-use planning patterns and edifice codifications must be smartly pursued if the tendency of intensifying losingss from natural catastrophes is to be reversed ( National Research Council, 1991 ) . Bosher, L. et al. , ( 2007 ) stress if a resilient and sustainable built environment is to be achieved, exigency direction should be more proactive and receive greater input from the stakeholders responsible for the planning, design, building and operation of the built environment.Legislation and Policies:Spence ( 2004 ) argues that the regulative s ide of pull offing hazards from natural jeopardies, such as statutory edifice codifications, plants in some fortunes but tends to cut down hazard unevenly. At the same clip, such codifications are hard to use systematically because of their complexness. Nevertheless, statute law is needed to back up proficient programmes, such as beef uping bing edifices against tonss, while insurance strategies have the possible to lend significantly to extenuation attempts. Enterprises from the building industry could concentrate on policy amendments and proficient inventions. Harmonizing to Spence and Kelman ( 2004 ) , protecting edifices from the menace of natural jeopardies ‘is frequently regarded as a comparatively little portion of the undertaking of edifice sustainably, but it is an of import portion and that importance is turning. ‘ National Disaster Management of India ( 2007 ) states that Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS ) is mandated to develop national codifications and patt erns for design and building of lodging and all substructure undertakings. These codes/documents need to be revised at regular intervals based on alteration in jeopardy zonation, constructing public presentation in past catastrophes and results of research undertakings. It was observed that these codifications are non revised sporadically even though BIS is expected to make this one time in every five old ages. State has developed National Building Code ( 2005 ) and hazard specific codifications of patterns and guidelines for about last five decennaries. In malice of handiness of such paperss, enforcement mechanism, pertinence, and execution is found most lacking. Existing Town and Country Planning Acts, Master Plans, Area Development Rules and Building Byelaws and Regulations do non turn to safety demands of build environment. Harmonizing to Government of India ( 2002 ) , the state has integrated administrative machinery for direction of catastrophes at the National, State, District, and Sub-District degrees. At the national degree, the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for coordination of alleviation and response and overall natural catastrophe direction, and the Department of Agriculture & A ; Cooperation is the nodal Ministry for drought direction. The basic duty of set abouting deliverance, alleviation, and rehabilitation steps in the event of natural catastrophes, as at nowadays, is that of the State Governments concerned. The Cardinal Government supplements the attempts of the States by supplying fiscal and logistic support. Other Ministries are assigned the duty of supplying exigency support in instance of catastrophes that fall in their horizon. The policy agreements for run intoing relief outgo related to natural catastrophes are, by and big, based on the recommendations of consecutiv e finance committees. The two chief Windowss soon open for meeting such outgos are the Calamity Relief Fund ( CRF ) and National Calamity Contingency Fund ( NCCF ) . Gupta, K ( n.d. ) high spots India has been following five twelvemonth national programs, although they are non on a rolled footing. The earlier five twelvemonth programs did non advert catastrophe direction. The Tenth Five-Year Plan 2002-2007 for the first clip had a elaborate chapter entitled Disaster Management: The Development Perspective. The program emphasized the fact that development can non be sustainable without extenuation being built into the development procedure. Disaster extenuation and bar were adopted as indispensable constituent of the development scheme. The Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012 ( Planing Commission 2008 cited Gupta, K. ( n.d. ) states, â€Å" The development procedure demands to be sensitive towards catastrophe bar, readiness, and extenuation. Disaster direction has hence emerged as a h igh precedence for the state. Traveling beyond the historical focal point on alleviation and rehabilitation after the event, there is a demand to look in front and program for catastrophe readiness and extenuation in order to guarantee that periodic dazes to our development attempts are minimized. † The Eleventh Five Year Plan aims at consolidating the procedure by giving drift to undertakings and plans that develop and nurture the civilization of safety and the integrating of catastrophe bar and extenuation into the development procedure. Even the best of stray attempts will non bear fruit unless they are portion of an overall, well-considered attack and duties of all stakeholders are clearly spelt out and answerability and sustainability factored in. ( Gupta, K. , n.d. ) Ray-Bennett, N. S. ( 2007 ) highlights the provinces like Orissa and Rajasthan have Relief Codes and Maharashtra has a Disaster Management Plan, developed after the 1991 temblor. Following the Gujarat temblor the province cabinet rapidly passed a province catastrophe direction policy, but this policy is still a treatment papers. Even so, there are concerns that this Gujarat policy papers might miss a comprehensive position of catastrophes per Se. The Orissa Relief Code ( ORC ) is the lone catastrophe policy papers in Orissa that specifies how decision makers identify crisis conditions, how they should react and when they should make so during a natural catastrophe ( Government of Orissa 1996 cited Ray-Bennett, N. S. 2007 ) . Yet the ineffectualness of this ORC was clearly demonstrated during the super-cyclone in 1999. Inadequate executive capacity means that in most underdeveloped states, the bing urban development, and planning ordinances are non enforced ( Ray-Bennett, N. S. 2007 ) . Metri, B. A. 2006 recognizes the other major job is the nature of development and development policies. The existent ground for the implosion therapy in Rajasthan was non the quantum of rainfall but the manner in which civic constructions had come up, go againsting basic Torahs, in the past two decennaries. Experts blamed the inundations on faulty development planning. The statute law should include clear definitions of what constitutes a catastrophe at a national degree. However, there surely is a pressing demand for betterment and strengthening of bing institutional agreements and systems in this respect to do the initial response to a catastrophe more effectual and professional.Decision:Catastrophes are portion of the nature and it is inevitable in our life. Depending on the assorted states and its geographic characteristics runing from stat mis of coastlines, rivers, mountains, and comeuppances ; nature and extent of natural catastrophes may change. From the information, it seems that the frequence and impact of catastrophes is greater in the hapless and developing states. Furthermore, these states are among those which are frequently affected by assorted types of catastrophes. The developing states like India are less able to cover with the causes and impacts of catastrophes. The direction of natural catastrophes involves immense sum of research and anticipation of catastrophes. Disaster anticipation may be based on the past history of catastrophe happening, and country prone to a peculiar natural catastrophe. Disaster direction is a purposeful activity implement to cut down and pull off effects of catastrophe before and after the catastrophe work stoppages. Among all stages of catastrophe direction the stage of recovery, may make the window of chance for the execution of extenuation steps. Assorted extenuation steps can be executed really efficaciously after the catastrophe, as the memories of catastrophe are fresh in people mind, and they are ready to ac cept the extenuation alterations. But extenuation seems to be really cost effectual stairss in catastrophe direction, as it ever involves Reconstruction and rehabilitation. The most basic and primary measure in alleviation and recovery after catastrophe is to reinstate the supports of the affected people. Planing and better coordination in all alleviation activities are necessary for smooth working and to avoid misinterpretation in affected people. Most of the clip people react after the catastrophe happens, but early consciousness in society might non alter the happening and magnitude of catastrophe, but will assist in extenuating its impact on society and na

Importance of selected accounting and related courses as preparation for a management accounting career Essay

The heart of the global economy is undergoing a tremendous growth, which has created favorable conditions for professional development accounting career paths.. The present job market is faced with competition and education in a given career choice broadens opportunities. There are numerous types of jobs for individuals to pursuit in the field of accounting with specific requirements for career ranks and particular career clusters. Previously, educators and parents have played a significant role in assisting students choose career paths perceived to be related to economic development and overall economic-driving career path. Career clusters demand similar fundamental education and training, skills and knowledge, and career pathways. Also, accounting career, just like other fields offers the professionals the opportunity to rise along the career ladder from entry level to senior most level.Accounting is the study of the procedure used by a business to track expenses, income, assets, a nd liabilities over time and at the same time adhering to reporting standards. Accounting career deals with the reporting, recording, and analysis of the financial transactions of a business. While many people think that accounting is a complex career, it is not much about subtracting and adding of numbers, yet about comprehending what those numbers mean and demonstrating the ability to apply and communicate the numbers in an approach that benefits of a business organization. Essentially, accounting revolves around the preparation and analysis of financial statements, which significantly evaluates the success or failures of the company. Accountants act as middle-men between the decision-makers and business activities. As such, they record data from transactions and translate it into a meaning and useful information useful to the management, stockholder, customers, employees, government agencies and creditors. See more:  First Poem for You Essay Accounting Career Cluster                Accounting clusters in accounting involve providing analysis and interpretation of financial records in order to prepare financial documents for regulatory authorities. The job clusters in accounting include tax advisor, auditor, budget analyst, accountant, and actuary. Clusters in accounting encompass career pathways that record, classify, analyze, summarize, and communicate a business’ financial information for management decision-making. Public Accountants               Individuals in public accounting are employed by public accounting firms. They offer a range of accounting activities from financial analysis, statement preparation, private businesses, public firms, non-profit entities and government agencies. Most public accountants are certified public accountants. The most common requirement is a CPA certification, yet there are some other accountings certificates as well, including certified fraud examiner, certified management accountant, and enrolled agents for those specializing in tax. The entry level of a public accountant is a bachelor degree in accounting or finance and proficiency in Microsoft Office applications. A mid-level public accountant must have a CPA certification an advanced degree like an MBA with a focus in accounting or MAcc is useful (Birrer, 2009). Senior level public accountant requires all the mid-level entry requirements with an MBA, or a MAcc is recommended. Financial Accountant                These are accounting individuals that prepares the financial statements based on the general ledgers besides participating in significant financial decisions involving M & A, long-term and financial projections. Financial accountants, Birrer (2009) explains, are concerned with how the performance of a company is represented by outside party, loss and cash flow to managers and shareholders. Professionals in financial accounting career path follow the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles set by Financial Accounting Standards Board (Birrer, 2009). The requirements of an entry level a Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of business administration. Furthermore, knowledge of bookkeeping, accounting software, accounts payable and receivable. A CPA certification is mandatory for any accountant working for a public company registered with Securities and Exchange Commission. The senior level, however, requires a bachelor in accounting degree or financ e or a graduate degree in finance such as MBA. Career paths for financial accountants include staff accountant, bookkeeping, accountant, financial accountant, financial controller, and chief financial officer at a senior level. Management Accountants                  These are individuals employed by public or private companies to support their goals by performing tasks such as budgeting, asset management, cost management, and performance evaluation. Management accountants develop their career to become budget analysts that are responsible for developing and managing financial plans of an organization. There is also a cost accountant profession that works with consulting, corporations or accounting firms in retail and manufacturing sectors. Management accountants, another career path, involve participation in decisions about capital budgeting, business analysis, and shaping business strategy within a company. Management accountants require a bachelor’s degree in accounting or finance and strong technology skills, particularly, in Microsoft Excel (Ankers, 2007). Career LadderPublic Accountant                  According to Institute for Career Research, (2006) reports that the entry level of a public accountant is defined by the types of roles, requirements and job description of pubic accounts. An entry level is a staff accountant, tax personal, or a junior auditor at an accountant firm. Rising through the ranks, the middle level of a public accountant is a senior associate/accountant or tax or a manager for the audit in an accounting firm. The highest accounting rank of a public accountant career path is a senior partner/partner or director of a firm also, a certified public accountant in private practice and a corporate accounting executive or a CFO in a private company. In the senior level, executive accounting oversees audits; tax, drives strategy and business developed and manage client relationships. CPA in private practice, however, works with clients on tax issues, audits or budget analysis. Finally, a CFO conducts senior level management accountant re sponsibilities. Financial Accountant                   The entry level of a financial accountant is a bookkeeper, accountant or a staff accountant for individuals with bachelor’s degree in arts, science or BA. Along the ranks, there is a financial accountant, senior financial analyst and a senior accountant for individuals with all entry level requirements. Besides, strong communications and analytical skills are necessary. The professionals must also demonstrate knowledge of financial regulation. The top most financial accountant career paths include financial director, chief financial officer and a financial controller. These positions require all mid-level entry requirements alongside excellent managerial and interpersonal skills, high standards of accuracy and integrity and a bachelor degree in accounting or finance with MBA desirable (Institute for Career Research, 2006).Management accountants’ entry level becomes staff accountants, junior internal auditor, cost accountant, and a tax accou ntant. Along the ranks, the professionals become accounting managers, senior internal auditor, and a senior accountant. Moreover, the senior-most level is a controller, CFO, director of finance or accounting. While the entry level requires a bachelors’ degree, along the ranks, a senior most position in management accountants requires solid management skills, track record of leadership and excellence in the field and knowledge of the organization and accounting principles of United States. Conclusion                  Discussing career clusters and ladder is such an interesting assignment to establish a solid career path. Accounting professionals are tasked with responsibilities in various career paths and different job ladders. In overall, the accounting field requires professionals to achieve a bachelors’ degree in accounting or finance alongside special skill and knowledge such as communication, computer software, accuracy, integrity, management skills and overall accounting principles. References Ankers, R. G. (2007). Opportunities in an accounting career. New York: Educational Books Division of Universal Pub and Distributing Corp. Birrer, G. E. (2009). Importance of selected accounting and related courses as preparation for a management accounting career. Ann Arbor, Mich: University Microfilms Institute for Career Research. (2006). Career as a certified public accountant: CPA : crunching the numbers and advising businesses and individuals on how to manage their financial affairs. Chicago: Institute for Career Research. Source document

Math in Biotechnology field Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Math in Biotechnology field - Assignment Example 3- You are setting up a PCR reaction and the protocol asks you to add 0.9ng of DNA to the reaction. You have a sample of DNA which is 3mg/ml. Describe your approach to adding the same volume in parts per million to the reaction? Be specific, describe your dilutions, how much you will pipette, etc? 4- You are setting up a PCR reaction and the protocol asks you to add 3.0ng of DNA to the reaction. You have a sample of DNA which is 8mg/ml. Describe your approach to adding the same volume in parts per million to the reaction? Be specific, describe your dilutions, how much you will pipette, etc? 5- You are setting up a PCR reaction and the protocol asks you to add 0.6ng of DNA to the reaction. You have a sample of DNA which is 6mg/ml. Describe your approach to adding the same volume in parts per million to the reaction? Be specific, describe your dilutions, how much you will pipette,

Paul Gauguin, the Father of Modern Primitivism Essay

Paul Gauguin, the Father of Modern Primitivism - Essay Example The essay "Paul Gauguin, the Father of Modern Primitivism" discovers the Father of Primitivism, Paul Gauguin. We have become societies that live within the symbols we’ve created rather than beings who live as we were meant to, through all of our senses, which, David Howes argues, is the only way in which we will be able to once again feel fulfilled. â€Å"If we do no ‘come to our senses’ soon, we will have permanently forfeited the chance of constructing any meaningful alternatives to the pseudo-existence which passes for life in our current 'Civilization of the Image.'" Further, we have had several individuals willing to show us the way whom we have instead labeled as primitive because they did not relate to the world at the same superficial level that we did. By taking a look at both high fine art such as that produced by Paul Gauguin and the ‘primitive’ cultural products of the Inuit tribes, we can see that what we have traditionally defined as pr imitive is not necessarily an accurate term, or perhaps is a term that needs redefinition. In terms of discussing an artist such as Paul Gauguin, Oliver Sacks has helped us define the deviations of vision as the product of a savant mind, a mind that works in sharp contrast to the standard variety brain. According to the current research, the savant mind is able to more accurately and quickly process information than the average mind, by utilizing a full complement of information coming in from all of the senses, even questioning whether there might not be more.

Peace in World Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Peace in World Politics - Essay Example This essay stresses that if all the states in the world were to be democratic and these values and principles shared across the board then instances of armed conflicts would never arise. The universality of such shared principles among nations therefore will prompt peaceful coexistence amongst nations. Theoretically, the plausibility of peaceful relations among countries observing liberal principles is obvious, but the reality on the ground confirms a very different scenario. States are complex and the internal dynamics of countries and their relations to other countries might negate advancement towards peaceful coexistence. In fact, realist point out that such propositions are merely idealistic thinking and that results from the ground paints a very different picture. Currently countries such as the United States, Germany and Brazil are embroiled in disputes over claims that the United States has spied on their highest offices. Since these nations are very democratic and liberal, in stances of armed conflicts can be a far-flung idea. Internationally, fear and distrust is not uncommon and this is the real picture, there is no even a single self-defining state that has the capability of exposing its states secrets to other nations, irrespective of the cordial relationship, which such States enjoy. This paper makes a conclusion that the legality given to liberalist’s view of democracy-by-democracy peace theory liberalism has developed to be a basis of violence and intimidation in the world stage.

Diabetes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Diabetes - Essay Example Additionally, it is caused because the produced insulin do not work properly commonly referred to insulin resistance. The disease is developed when the proper amount of glucose cannot enter the cells of a body to be utilized as fuel. This happen when there is limited insulin helpful in unlocking the cells or if there is no enough insulin to work in a proper manner(Matthews, 2008). Diabetes is caused by bacterial or viral infection, chemical toxins found within the food, and unidentified components that cause autoimmune reaction. The above named causes are termed as autoimmune reaction or autoimmune causes, this is because the body attack themselves. The second types of diabetes are normally multifactorial. This type of obesity is caused by living sedentary lifestyle, increasing age, poor diet, and obesity. Diabetes can also be caused by other illness and pregnancy. The symptoms of diabetes are typical. However, those with type 2 diabetes have symptoms that can go unnoticed. Some of the conventional symptoms for diabetes include urinating often, feeling thirsty, feeling hungry though you are eating, extreme fatigue and restlessness, blurry vision, bruises and cuts that are slow to heal, weight loss despite eating, and numbness, pain, tingling on hands. When detected early and treated early, can reduce the risk of complicating the disease (Stehouwer, 2009).   People with diabetes need to change their lifestyle. Normally, they need addition treatment like medication in controlling their blood pressure, blood fats, and diabetes. Medication cannot be substituted to taking regular exercise and healthy diet. Therefore, one needs to take diabetes medication, transplant of Islet cell, and use of insulin. When diabetes medication is carried out the blood glucose, level will lower and there are various different types that work in different ways. People with diabetes will medication and treatment such as insulin. Some of the

Social Life in Popular Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Social Life in Popular Music - Essay Example Actually, certain rock and blues songs gained popularity in certain epochs. So, being popular is not just being meaningless or pop. In fact, in a given period of time and in certain circumstances popularity is gained by representatives of different musical genres. Consequently, it can be noticed that popular music is determined by consumerism and dynamic and cannot be limited by the genre of pop. Furthermore, several examples of political nature of popular music are analyzed. Firstly, the question of identity and music is risen. In terms of creation certain subcultures such a music power is clearly noticed. In fact, it is a special environment which surrounds a certain genre of music and unites a certain self-identification with the society. In particular, it can be seen in the way popular music creates ideals for them and encourages to change the world. Moreover, it is evident that for some people being a music fan is more important than their ethnicity or gender. Thus, the nature of popular music is deeply political. Then, the very ability to transform one’s self-identification in the society is transcended on the global level. Here, world music charts are surely supporting contemporary cultural imperialism which is evident in the political context. Actually, the very ability of music to cross the borders enables this role for it. For instance, cases of Cuban and Turkish music reveal a significant influence of Western trends and international music companies on them. Moreover, in Cuba this impact is even more powerful than local cultural effects. And so, it is evident that popular music is reflecting all the main political trends in the world on the global level. Finally, the real cases of causal linkage between popular music and political actions should be discussed.

Efficacy of corticosteroids in the treatment of Severe Sepsis and Literature review

Efficacy of corticosteroids in the treatment of Severe Sepsis and septic shock In critical care - Literature review Example Treatment involves aggressive fluid resuscitation, antibiotics, surgical excision of infected or necrotic tissues and drainage of pus, supportive care, and sometimes intensive control of blood glucose and administration of corticosteroid and activated protein c. Adjunctive corticosteroid therapy is commonly prescribed to patients with septic shock, despite the fact that few trials show survival value. A reduction in time to shock reversal has been observed. The present study aimed to review the literature available for the efficacy of corticosteroids in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. Data was gathered from articles published in peer reviewed journals. Despite the lack of consensus in the efficacy of corticosteroids in the published literature, corticosteroids were found to be safe and effective as first line treatment for septic shock, though there efficacy in severe sepsis treatment is not documented. {Key Words: Septic shock, severe sepsis, corticosteroids, hydroc ortisone, critical care, adrenal insufficiency, organ dysfunction} EFFICACY OF CORTICOSTEROIDS IN TREATMENT OF SEVERE SEPSIS AND SEPTIC SHOCK INTRODUCTION Septic shock is one of the most critical complications associated with surgical cases and still one of the major causes of mortality in the intensive care units (ICUs). Shock, in general refers to a scarcity of oxygen supply leading to hypotension and hypoperfusion followed by cellular dysfunction; sepsis refers to a systemic inflammatory response to infection (Wang et al. 2009). Thus, severe sepsis can be defined as sepsis complicated by organ dysfunction, tissue or organ hypofusion; or hypotension (Balk, 2000). The organ dysfunctions associated with severe sepsis include renal, respiratory, cardiovascular, hematologic, hepatic and gastrointestinal dysfunction. Septic shock is systemic inflammatory response to infection occurring with acute respiratory failure, persistent arterial hypotension and perfusion abnormalities, in sever e case leading to organ dysfunction (Bridges, 2005). Progressively increasing incidences of mortality and morbidity are reported for sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock, respectively (Zanotti-Cavazzoni & Hollenberg, 2009). An epidemiological study of cases of severe sepsis in England, Wales and Northern Ireland for the period spanning 1996 to 2004 reported hospital mortality of 48.3% in the year 1996, which has marginally decreased to 44.7% in 2004. Moreover the total number of deaths due to severe sepsis has risen from 9,000 to 14,000 during this period due to rise in incidences of severe sepsis (Harrison et al., 2006). Another study to evaluate worldwide incidences of mortality as consequence of severe sepsis reported a marginal fall in number of deaths due to the condition, the mortality still remaining as high as 30-50% (Laterre et al., 2004). Cardiovascular and hemodynamic instability are closely associated with increase in

Imelda Marcos Essay Example for Free

Imelda Marcos Essay Imelda R. Marcos (born Imelda Remedios Visitacion Romualdez on July 2, 1929) is a Filipino politician and widow of former Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos. Upon the ascension of her husband to political power, she held various positions to the government until 1986. She is the first politician elected as member of the Philippine legislature in three geographical locations (Manila, Leyte, Ilocos Norte). In 2010, she was elected to become a member of the House of Representatives to represent Ilocos Nortes second district. She is sometimes referred to as the Steel Butterfly or the Iron Butterfly. [1][2] She is often remembered for symbols of the extravagance of her husbands political reign, including her collection of 2,700 pairs of shoes. [3] Ancestry Marcos was born in Manila, Philippines. Her paternal ancestors were wealthy, landed and prominent, and claimed to have founded the town of Tolosa, Leyte. The Lopezes were descended from the Spanish friar and silversmith Don Francisco Lopez, originally from Granada, in the Andalusian region of Spain. Together with Fray Salustiano Buz, he arrived by way of Acapulco to build Roman Catholic missions in the island provinces of Samar and Leyte (Buz would establish his home base in Palapag, Samar, the exit-entry point of the Manila Galleons in the Visayas islands). [4] Early life and career Her branch of the family was not political. Her father, Vicente Orestes Romualdez, a law professor at Saint Pauls College and the administrator of the Romualdez Law Offices founded by his brother (Imeldas Uncle), Philippine Supreme Court Justice Norberto Lopez Romualdez, was a scholarly man more interested in music and culture than public life. He was a traditionalist, preferring to teach in Spanish while the rest of the students and faculty spoke English and Tagalog. Marcos had a younger brother, Benjamin Romualdez (1930-2012). [5] Her mother, Remedios Trinidad y de Guzman or Remedios T. Romualdez, a former boarder at the Asilo de San Vicente de Paul (Looban Convent) in Paco, Manila, was said to have been born out of wedlock, the child of a friar. [6] Remedios was from the town of Baliuag, Bulacan, and her own mother was from Capiz.

Multiple Myeloma: Causes, Signs and Treatments

Multiple Myeloma: Causes, Signs and Treatments 1.0 Introduction Human body is consisting of so many of cells, almost uncountable. Normal human body cells are growing, dividing into new cell and dying in an orderly fashion. There are different how the body cell is growing between normal cells and cancer cells. Instead of dying, cancer cell continue to grow and form news and abnormal cells. Differ from normal cells; cancer cells can invade other tissue. The cancer cells are the cell that is growing out of control and invading the other cell. When cancer cells diffuse the blood vessel or lymph vessel, the process called metastasis can happen. It is a process where the cancer cells travel, grow out and form new tumors at the other part of the body but it is always named from its origin. Different types of cancer can act very differently like they growing at different speed and respond to different treatments. Not all tumors are cancerous. They are called benign tumor. This type of tumors cannot invade others tissues and cannot metastasize. This kind of tumors are almost never life threatening. Multiple myeloma is a cancer of plasma cells. It is malignant cancer cells. The other names for multiple myeloma are plasma cell myeloma or Kahlers disease. Plasma cell is a type of white blood cells that functioning as producer of antibodies. In the human body, the interference of the production of normal blood cells happened because of multiple myeloma, when the collection of abnormal plasma cells is accumulating in the bone marrow. The multiple myeloma usually started at the bone marrow. Bone marrow is the soft, spongy tissue that can be found inside the most bone in the human body. The breastbone, spine, ribs, skull, pelvic bones, and femur are rich with marrow. The myeloma cells that accumulate in the bone marrow can destroy the solid part of the bone. It is called multiple myeloma when more than on of the bone have the collection of myeloma cells. Besides that other tissue and organ like, kidneys can be affected and damaged by this disease. This is because the myeloma cells can produce antibodies that called M protein and other protein. They can be found and collected in the blood, urine and organs. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 CAUSES The etiology of the multiple myeloma is poorly known to the physician. According to (Multiple myeloma 2011) although the exact cause is unknown, the one thing for sure is multiple myeloma is begin with one abnormal plasma cell and its started to multiple in bone marrow (Multiple myeloma 2011). 2.2 CLINICAL FINDING Usually the multiple myeloma is found out accidently when the patients do the routine blood test for another reason. The blood test result will indicate that patients have anemia, abnormal red blood cells, high serum protein level and how levels of normal antibody. In addition, when patients do the urine test, the results will show that the calcium levels is high and same to go to blood urea nitrogen levels and creatinine levels. If the kidneys are not functioning properly, then there is high level of urea and creatinines exist in urine because the kidneys cannot eliminate these substances properly. When the protein electrophoresis is carried out, the result will shows a large M protein spike, high concentration of monoclonal lg and the Bence Jones protein also detected. The marrow is examined by using bone marrow aspiration techniques. The multiple myeloma usually shows 10%-30% of the cells are plasma cells. 2.3 INCIDENCE OF MULTIPLE MYELOMA Incidence of multiple myeloma means the annual diagnosing rate, or the number of new multiple myeloma case being diagnosed each year. According to (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012) multiple myelomas are seldom affected children, teenagers and young adults. The incidences of multiple myeloma are increased with age (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012). In 50s, 60s and 70s the incidences of the multiple myeloma is the highest (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012). According to (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012) 65 years old and above is the onset age for this disease, with an incidence rate of 28.6 per 100000 versus 1.8 per 100000 people under 65 years old. In addition, multiple myeloma is common in men and in individuals of African descent (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012). In Asian, about 1/100000 population/year will get multiple myeloma, while in Caucasian, 4/100000 population/ year will get multiple myeloma but, for African descent, 8-10/100000 population /year will get multiple myeloma (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012). According to (General information about plasma cell neoplasm 2012) the incidence of multiple myeloma in United States in 2012 is 21700. While in Canada, according to (Canadian statistics for multiple myeloma 2013) about 2300 new case of multiple myeloma is recorded in 2011. 2.4 MORTALITY OF MULTIPLE MYELOMA The mortality rate for patients with multiple myeloma is high because the cure for this disease is still unknown to the people and physicians (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012). The median survival rate is approximately 3 or 5 years following a diagnosis of systematic multiple myeloma (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012). However, there are some patients that live 10 or 20 years following their diagnosing (Multiple myeloma quick statistics 2012). It is making things so unpredictable. According to (General information about plasma cell neoplasm 2012) 10710 of people have die from multiple myeloma in the United Stated. While in Canada, according to (Canadian statistics for multiple myeloma 2013) about 1370 people had die from multiple myeloma in 2011. 2.5 Risk factors The real causes of multiple myeloma is stil unknown. physicians hardly aware why someone get the multiple myeloma and why others do not but, one thing for sure is multiple myeloma is not contangious disease. There are several risk factors that can contribute to the multiple myeloma. Age over 65 years old As the age increase, the change of developing multiple myeloma also increasing (Multiple myeloma 2013). According to (Multiple myeloma 2013) most people are diagnosed with myeloma after the age of 65 years old. Race According to (Multiple myeloma 2013) the african americans have the highest risk to get multiple myeloma while the asian americanshave the lowest risk. The reason of why this happen is unknown (Multiple myeloma 2013). Gender According to (Multiple myeloma 2013) in the United Stated, the numbers of men that are diagnosed with multiple myeloma is higher compared to women. The reason of why this happen is unknown (Multiple myeloma 2013). Personal history of (MGUS) monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance MGUS is a benign condition in which abnormal plasma cell make M proteins. Usually, its assystomatic and by running the blood test to the pateint, the abnormal M protein level can be found out (Multiple myeloma 2013). Sometimes people who have MGUS can develop certain cancers, like multiple myeloma(Multiple myeloma 2013). Family history The risk of getting multiple myeloma is increased if a close relative had the disease(Multiple myeloma 2013) . 2.6 SIGN AND SYMPTOMS Usually, depending on how advanced the disease, the symptoms of multiple myeloma may be varies (What is multiple myeloma 2013). In the earliest stages, a person may be assystomatic (What is multiple myeloma 2013). When these symptoms present, its may be obscure and similar to those of other conditions also,it is kindly hard to diffrentiate whether it is multiple myeloma or other diseases. Sometimes not all patient have all these symptoms (What is multiple myeloma 2013). Kidney problem According to (What is multiple myeloma 2013) kidney damage can happen when the kidney filtering excess protein the blood and this may lead to renal failure. The symptoms like loss of appetite, fatigue, muscle weakness,conctipation, nausea and vomiting will appear when hypercalcemia overworks the kidneys (What is multiple myeloma 2013) . Pain One of the most common early symptom of the multiple myeloma is lower back pain or pain at the ribs area (What is multiple myeloma 2013). Because of accumulation of plasma cells and weakened bone structures, there is tiny fracture in the bone and it can leads to the lower back pain ot pain in the area of the fractures(What is multiple myeloma 2013). Fatigue According to (What is multiple myeloma 2013) the number of malignant plasma cells is increases in the bone marrow caused the growth and development of red blood cells in the bone marrow lessen it can lead to anemia. unusual tiredness and abnormal paleness is the common symptoms of anemia. Recurent infection According to (What is multiple myeloma 2013) myeloma patient have higher risk, about 15 fold than a healthy person to get infection, espeacially pneumonia. the immunity of patient is reduced from infections such as bacterial pneumonia, urinary tract infection and shingles and it is happened when the blood produces fewer white blood cell that functional to fight the infection , as the number of myeloma cell increases.(What is multiple myeloma 2013) . Nervous system disfunction Because of the bone structure is weakened and collapsed, it may encroach on thenerves, produce severe pain, tingling or numbnes (What is multiple myeloma 2013). Accoding to (What is multiple myeloma 2013) the abnormal proteins that have been produce by the myeloma cellswill contribute to the appearant of the symptoms and if it is produce in the large amounts, it will cause hyperviscosity. 2.7 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY B-lymphocytes are developed from the stem cell in the bone marrow, and from them the plasma cells is being produces. The antibodies that can recognize antigen are carries by the B-cells. Antibodies are responsible in recognizing and destroying material and organisms such as bacteria. As his antibodies recognize and want to destroy the antigen, they will proliferate rapidly and become mature plasma cells. These plasma cells are monoclonal. If there is damaged to the genetic materials when stem cell is develop to B cell, multiple myeloma will begin. This is because; it will lead to the development of plasmablast. The plasmablast will bond together inside the bone marrow because of production of adhesive molecule that allows them to do so. These myeloma cells are growing out uncontrollable and did not die naturally because of interference of a growth factor that called interleukin-6. Multiple myeloma patient have higher contain of plasma cells in their bone marrow compared to normal individual. In this disease, a plasma B cell is genetically damaged and proliferated uncontrollably (Immune cells and multiple myeloma 2013). The antibodies are overproduced by cancerous cell and accumulated in bone marrow. The bone cells named osteoclasts are stimulated by altered plasma cell. The bone structure is dissolved by the enzymes that be produced by the Osteoclasts, caused some of the symptoms associated with the disease, including pain and disfigurement (Immune cells and multiple myeloma 2013). Normally, B cell is move freely around the body, that is why the cancerous cells are available in the blood stream and metastasis is a common thing. Usually, multiple tumors are available in different bones (Immune cells and multiple myeloma 2013). The malignant myeloma cell will produce identical lg (immunoglobulin). The dysfunctional immunoglobulins that produce from myeloma cell are called paraprotein. They are called monoclonal because the myeloma cells are identical clones of a single plasma cell. Multiple myeloma will depress immune system because of action of paraprotein that destroy the functional lgs and other components of immune system. The malignant plasma cells also produce monoclonal light chain or incomplete lgs that call Bence Jones protein and secreted in the urine. 2.8 HISTOPATHOLOGY OF THE MULTIPLE MYELOMA According to (Tobias 2012), plasma cells from patients with myeloma are usually immature in appearance with centrally located nuclei, distinct nucleoli and perinuclear vacuolization. There are also often multinucleated plasma cells. Immunohistochemical analysis can verify monoclonality. The plasma cells produce monoclonal lgG or lgA that can be detected through a characteristic serum protein electrophoresis pattern. Eighty percent of the patients have a complete monoclonal lg in the serum and most of them simultaneously produce light chain in the urine (bence jones protein). The light chain concentration in the urine is often so low that Hellers urinary test is negative. 3.0 IMAGING MODALITIES OF MULTIPLE MYELOMA There are several imaging modalities that can be used to rule out multiple myeloma. According to (Healy et al. 2011) the function of medical imaging in multiple myeloma is crucial in the initial staging of disease, in detection and characterization of complication and to asses patient response toward the treatment. CONVENTIONAL RADIOGRAPHY A full skeletal survey is done in order to rule out the multiple myeloma. This skeletal survey is included a frontal and lateral view of the skull, the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine, a coned down frontal view of the dens axis, as well as frontal view of ribs cage, humeri, knees and pelvis (Healy et al. 2011). Advantages According to (Healy et al. 2011) the evidence of multiple myeloma can be seen on the radiograph of skeletal survey in 80% of patient. The radiological evidence of multiple myeloma can been seen on vertebrae in 66%, ribs in 45%, skull in 40%, shoulder in 40%, and pelvis in 30% and long bones in 25% (Healy et al. 2011). The advantage of plain radiography compare to MRI is in discovering the cortical bone lesions in the radiograph. It also has the advantage of being easily available and inexpensive compare to the other imaging modalities (Healy et al. 2011). Disadvantages One of the disfavor of conventional radiography is diffusion of bone marrow, which may or may not be associated with cortical bone destruction, is cannot be evaluated by the conventional radiography (Healy et al. 2011). Furthermore, the lytic lesions become clear and appear on plain radiography if only when 30-50% of the bone mineral density is already loss (Healy et al. 2011). In addition, the causes of the diffuse osteopenia that shown on the radiograph cannot be differentiate whether it is because of multiple myeloma or because of other reason such as osteoporosis (Healy et al. 2011). According to (Healy et al. 2011)because of plain radiograph required patient to be in varied positioning that is sometimes painful for the patients who are usually elderly and disable because of pathological fracture then this plain radiograph become disfavor for the multiple myeloma patients. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY According to (Healy et al. 2011) CT is a sensitive imaging modality in evaluating the osteolytic effects of multiple myeloma and has a higher sensitivity than conventional radiography at detecting small lytic lesions. The characteristic of myeloma disease like punched out lytic lesions, expansile lesions with soft tissue masses, diffuse osteopenia, fractures and rarely osteosclerosis can be detected by the CT scan (Healy et al. 2011). Advantages If the CT, MRI and conventional radiography is being compared in patient with newly diagnosed multiple myeloma, then CT was advance than conventional radiography at defining lytic lesion and in combination with MRI, aiding in staging the extent of the disease(Healy et al. 2011). CT is more accurate than MRI in the assessing of fracture areas. According to (Healy et al. 2011) in case where MRI is negative, CT is used in identifying bone destruction, hence complementary imaging information may be provided. Furthermore, the presence and extend of extraosseous lesions is demonstrated accurately by CT scan. In image guided spinal or pelvic bone biopsy of MRI defined focal lesions; CT is preferred (Healy et al. 2011). Furthermore, CT can be done quickly and comfortable for the patient as they just need to be lying stilly. Disadvantage According to (Healy et al. 2011) a disadvantage of CT is that it typically shows persistent bone lesions throughout the trend of the disease and unlike MRI and PET/CT, it cannot evaluate continued activity of myeloma in areas of anterior to bone destruction. WHOLE BODY MRI According to (Healy et al. 2011) in detecting diffuse and focal multiple myeloma in the spine as well as the extra axial skeleton, the whole body MRI is proven to be the most sensitive imaging modalities to do it. It is crucial to know that MRI preponderantly showing bone marrow infiltration, which may or may not be related with bone destruction (Healy et al. 2011). Advantages MRI has capability to visualize large volumes of bone marrow without producing radiation exposure and in shorten time, its suitable and favorable method to evaluate disease within bone marrow (Healy et al. 2011). In addition as the number and pattern of lesions detected on MRI is mutual related very well with treatment outcome and overall survival, which is means MRI has prognostic significance (Healy et al. 2011). In patient with extraosseous lesions, it is important to define the degree of involvement and to asses for cord compression so MRI can be the best choice to do it. Disadvantages According to (Michael 2011) ,although MRI is sensitive to the existance of disease, but it it not disease particular, that is why extra test such as direct aspiration of bone marrow and measurement of gamma globulin level to asses for plasmacytosis need to be taken. It is because the signal intensity profile and enhancement pattern produce by MRI is almost the same between any muscoskeletal tumor and myeloma.(Michael 2011). That is why, MRI may give worse or better result about the disease to the patients with myeloma, in the other word it may understage the disease or overstage the disease. (Michael 2011). NUCLEAR IMAGING Myeloma is a disease that is caused by overactivity of osteoclasts, with resultant liberation of bone and suppression of osteoblasts (Michael 2011). According to (Michael 2011) nuclear medicine bone scans are depended on osteoblastic activity for diagnosing. In addition, the extend and severity of the disease is underestimated by standard tecnetium -99m (99m Tc) bone scans. So, this bone scan should not be used mundanely. Advantages According to (Michael 2011) 99m TC-MIBI can demonstrated the extend and intensity of bone marrow infiltration equally as well as MRI and its may serve as subtituition to MRI in cases in which MRI is not convenient. Disadvantages According to (Michael 2011) the fast- negative rate of standard 99m Tc bone scintigraphy is high in diagnosing multiple myeloma. Additional test is required for the confirmation if the scan is positive with normal radiograph(Michael 2011). PET/CT PET/CT is a tomographic nuclear imaging tecnique that injected labelled radiopharmaceutical such as flouro-deoxy-glucose (FDG) into the patient then, followed by tomographic scanning 10-40 minutes later. Because of tumor cell have high metabolic rate and high glucose demand, then it can be differentiate from the normal cell by using thic tecnique. in detecting early bone marrow involvement with apparent of solitary plasmacytoma, PET/CT is used. Besides that, PET/CT also used in assessing the extent of active disease, detecting extramedullary involvement or evaluating treatment response given by the doctors to the multiple myeloma patient. (Michael 2011). Advantages According to (Michael 2011) the most substantial benefits of PET/CT imaging is it has ability to differentiate between active myeloma and monoclonal gammopathy of undetermine significance (MGUS) smouldering disease. Disadvantages According to (Michael 2011) the primary drawback of PET is it have limited spatial resolution, that can cause restriction in detecting subcentumetre lytic lesions seen on conventional radiography. 4.0 DISCUSSION Multiple myeloma is known as the disease that is incurable but treaterable,. This disease is also progression slowly and can be repeated again. If this disease is in stage 1, it is very hard to diagnose this disease by the imaging modalities. Usually, in stage 1, this disease have normal bone structure or only isolated plasmacytoma. Most patient are diagnosed at stage 3. As there is no clear cause of these disease, so there is no method for preventing multiple myeloma. 5.0 TREATMENT FOR MULTIPLE MYELOMA Though multiple myeloma is incurable, but with the good treatment the patient can be as normal as healthy person. According to (Multiple myeloma 2012) standard intervention options include: Bortezomib (Velcade) (Multiple myeloma 2012) It is administered intravenously. This drug will blocking the action of proteasomes and can lead to the death of cancers cell (Multiple myeloma 2012). For the people who are newly diagnosed and previously treated myeloma, this drugs can be useful and approvable. 5.2 Thalidomide (thalomid) (Multiple myeloma 2012) This drug is suitable for the treatment of newly diagnosed multiple myeloma (Multiple myeloma 2012). This drug is admitted orally. Lenalidomine (revlimid) (Multiple myeloma 2012) This drug is more potent and causes fewer side effects than thalidomide (Multiple myeloma 2012). It is given orally. This drug can be used for the patient who has previously treated with myeloma and the patient with newly diagnosed myeloma (Multiple myeloma 2012). Chemotherapy (Multiple myeloma 2012) It is involves using medicines that need to be taken orally as a pill or through intravenous injection to kill myeloma cells (Multiple myeloma 2012). Chemotherapy is carry out in a cycles over a period of months,and then followed by a rest period (Multiple myeloma 2012). melphalan, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin and liposomal dexoribicin are the most common chemothreaphy drugs that has veen used in treating myeloma (Multiple myeloma 2012). Corticosteroids (Multiple myeloma 2012) For decade the treatment of the multiple myeloma is using corticosteroids, like prednisone and dexamethasone (Multiple myeloma 2012). The corticosteroids are come in pill form. Stem cell plantation (Multiple myeloma 2012) This treatment is done by using high doses of melphalan, and the immature blood cells that have been collected are transfused to subtitute diseased or damaged marrow (Multiple myeloma 2012). The stem cell is derived from the patient or donor (Multiple myeloma 2012). Radiation therapy (Multiple myeloma 2012) This treatment applies high energy penetration waves to destroy myeloma cell and restrain their growth (Multiple myeloma 2012). In the purpose of to shrinking myeloma cells in a specific area quickly, radiation therapy may be the best choice (Multiple myeloma 2012). 6.0 PROGNOSIS OF MULTIPLE MYELOMA To see the posible outcome of a disease, prognosis is the right medical term for it. It is easy to apply the prognosis to a larger population of patients rather than to a single of patient. For example, it is easy to state that within one year, almost 35% of people in coma will be paralyzed, but its hard to accurately state when will a patient with multiple myeloma die or free from this disease because it is required a lot of patient research specifically. According to (Multiple myeloma prognosis 2011) in multiple myeloma cases by using the international staging system, the prognosis can be done. With the helps of this system, the survival of the myeloma patient can be predicted by depending on stages. The average survival of 62 months for stage one, 42 months for stage 2 and 29 months for a disease that have entered the stage 3 of the disease prognosis ranking is predicted by the international staging system (Multiple myeloma prognosis 2011). The differences of prognosis for multiple myeloma between one patient and others is the common thing. In this disease, 70 years old is the average age that people ussually get the multiple myeloma (Multiple myeloma prognosis 2011). Furthermore, based on the research, the older patient have low change of survival to be compared with younger patients as the older patient may have many other disease that can complicate the situation (Multiple myeloma prognosis 2011). 7.0 CONCLUSION As the conclusion, we can say that imaging modalities have played a big role in diagnosing and treating multiple myeloma patient. Without imaging modalities like plain xray, ct scan , MRI, and others it is hard to diagnose for sure that a patient have multiple myeloma. In addition, it is also hard for physicians to see the progression of the disease or the progression of the treatment without imaging modalities. So, we should be grateful to have so many efficient imaging modalities that can be useful to patients and physicians. By having many imaging modalities, that is mean the doctors will have several choice of use according the type of disease. Different imaging modalities is the best for different types of disease. In this assigment, I can know which imaging modalities is the best for multiple myeloma. Besides that, by doing this assigment, I can learn and differenciate between normal and abnormal appearance of anatomical structures on the radiological images.